J APPL POULT RES 2006. 15:417-424
© 2006 Poultry Science Association
Utilization of Rice Starch in the Formulation of Low-Fat, Wheat-Free Chicken Nuggets
V. Jackson*,
M. W. Schilling*,1,
P. C. Coggins* and
J. M. Martin
* Department of Food Science, Nutrition, and Health Promotion, Box 9805; and Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Box 9815, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State 39762
Correspondence: 1 Corresponding author: Schilling{at}foodscience.msstate.edu
 |
SUMMARY
|
|---|
Three trials of 6 treatments (rice flour, wet batter baked; rice flour, dry batter baked; rice flour, wet batter fried; wheat flour, wet batter baked; wheat flour, dry batter baked; wheat flour, wet batter fried) were utilized to test the effects of flour type, batter type, and cooking method on the characteristics of chicken nuggets. Value was added to these chicken nuggets by utilizing rice flour in the production of gluten-free products as well as lipid reduction through baking. Added value is attributed to the production of a product that is highly acceptable to certain consumer clusters and has the potential to reach niche markets (wheat-free or low-fat chicken nuggets) that have not previously been targeted in the mainstream portion of the grocery store. Consumers were clustered into 6 population segments revealing that all 6 treatments were acceptable to some segment of the population. Baking instead of frying reduced fat calories by at least 67%. This reveals the feasibility of using rice flour in the formulation of low-fat or wheat-free chicken nuggets without diminishing quality and the added value component of usability by people who either require a low-fat diet, have celiac disease, or both.
Key Words: chicken nugget • celiac disease • rice • wheat-free • low-fat • baked
|
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
|
|---|
It is estimated that 1% of Americans and from 1 in 130 to 1 in 300 Europeans suffer from celiac disease [1, 2], a genetically based autoimmune condition that is characterized by intolerance to gluten, a component in wheat, barley, and rye [3]. Chicken nuggets are traditionally breaded using wheat flour [3] and gluten makes up 60% of wheat protein. Gluten ingestion can cause severe health problems for people who have celiac disease [4]. The only treatment for this condition is to consume food products that do not contain gluten such as rice, rice products, and potato and corn flours [5]. People who are afflicted with celiac disease may suffer from anemia and malabsorption and prolonged consumption of gluten can cause serious intestinal damage and malnutrition [6]. Complete adherence to a gluten-free diet enables the intestinal mucosa to heal and resolves gastrointestinal symptoms [1]. Wheat is also 1 of the 8 most common food allergens. It has been reported that over 11,000,000 Americans are allergic to a food product and that over 1 million of these individuals may be allergic to wheat [7]. The incidence of food allergies is 8% in children, but only 2% in adults, indicating that children often outgrow food allergies. Due to the increasing incidence of celiac disease [8] as well as the occurrence of wheat allergies, wheat-free food products that are acceptable to consumers need to be introduced to the marketplace.
Rice and rice products can add value to foods, often as an alternative to other ingredients. Rice-based products can be used to reduce the fat content of deep-fried, battered chicken because rice flour batter absorbs less oil than wheat flour batter due to chemical differences between wheat and rice proteins [9] and makes products more resistant to lipid oxidation during frozen storage [10, 11].
Obesity is presently considered an epidemic in the United States, affecting more than 30% of the adult population [12]. Because this incidence level is expected to rise, there is an increased need for affordable, low-fat foods that taste good. Because of the need for gluten-free and reduced-fat products to meet market niches, this experiment was designed to determine the feasibility of manufacturing low-fat chicken nuggets breaded with rice flour as well as determine consumer preference of reheated nuggets based on cooking method, flour source, and batter type.
|
MATERIALS AND METHODS
|
|---|
Chicken Nugget Preparation
Chicken nuggets were prepared using chicken breast meat [13] purchased from a local grocery store. The portions of breast meat and other ingredients utilized to prepare the raw product were based on a USDA Commodity Specification [14]. Breast meat was deboned, trimmed of external fat, and partially ground in a food processor [15]. Sodium tripolyphosphate and salt were mixed in water and added to the partially ground meat. Ground skin and seasonings were added to the partially ground meat, and the chicken mixture was then thoroughly ground. The composition of the raw chicken mixture was 91% breast meat, 3.5% skin, 3.0% water, 0.35% sodium tripolyphosphate, 0.5% salt, and 1.65% seasonings [16]. The raw chicken mixture was chilled (4°C) for 2 h and formed into nuggets measuring approximately 4 x 2 x 2 cm.
Batter Ingredient and Formulation
For dry batter treatments, 2 batters were used: all-purpose (wheat) flour [17] and rice flour [18]. The prices of the wheat and rice flours are $0.73/lb ($0.33/kg) and $1.01/lb ($0.46/kg) when bought in 10,000-lb units, respectively [17, 18]. Differences in price are hypothesized to be due to demand and current availability rather than processing costs. Both flours contained approximately 80% carbohydrate, 10% protein, and 10% moisture; rice flour had more potassium and niacin than the wheat flour [17, 18]. Flour made up 85.5% of the batter in the rice flour and wheat flour batters. Other ingredients in the dry batter included: 0.5% salt, 0.25% pepper, and 0.75% Maillose Dry [19]. Whole egg made up 13% of the batter formulation, but was not mixed in the dry batter. The raw nuggets were dipped into the egg so that the dry batter would adhere to the meat surface. For wet batter treatments, batters were formulated with either 42.75% rice flour or wheat flour. Other ingredients in the wet batter included 0.5% salt, 0.25% pepper, 0.75% Mail-lose Dry, 13% whole egg, and 42.75% added water. These ingredients were mixed together with either the rice or wheat flour until a smooth batter was formed.
Treatment Combinations
Six treatments that differed in flour source (wheat and rice), batter type (dry and wet batter), and cooking method (baking and frying) were used in this experiment: rice flour, wet batter baked; rice flour, dry batter baked; rice flour, wet batter fried; wheat flour, wet batter baked; wheat flour, dry batter baked; wheat flour, wet batter fried. Three replications of the 6 treatments were formulated and 6 randomly selected samples were used for color and textural analysis for each treatment within each replication. Three randomly selected samples from each treatment (within each replication) were utilized to determine moisture, protein, lipid, carbohydrate, and ash percentage.
Cooking Methods
For dry batter treatments (baked product), raw chicken nuggets were dredged in dry batter (wheat or rice flour), dipped in whole egg, and placed on a rack to drain excess batter. For wet batter treatments (baked and fried product), raw chicken nuggets were dipped in prepared wet batter (wheat or rice flour) and transferred to the rack to drain excess batter. A poultry thermometer [20] was inserted into the middle portion of a battered nugget within each treatment. The battered nuggets (dry and wet batter) were baked in an oven [21] at 232°C for 5 min on each side for a total of about 10 min. Internal temperature of the baked nuggets was 77°C at approximately 10 min. Baked nuggets were then cooled at room temperature (20°C). Wet batter treatments (wheat and rice) were deep-fried in corn oil [22] at 191°C for 2 min until golden brown. Corn oil was used to fry the nuggets because it is inexpensive, has a smoke point similar to vegetable oil (commonly used), and is not extracted from a product that is a food allergen such as soybean oil. Fried nuggets were drained on paper towels and cooled to room temperature (20°C). Dry batter chicken nuggets were not fried based on information from industrial sources and research literature [23] because it would be impractical for each consumer (panelist) to taste 8 treatments due to fatigue. If consumers had not tasted all treatments in the study, agglomerative hierarchical clustering would not have been possible. Chicken nuggets from each treatment were then stored in zip-lock freezer bags [24] at 4°C before instrumental and consumer analyses that were conducted within 5 d of cooking.
Color Analysis
Color measurements were taken on each of 6 randomly selected chicken nuggets from each treatment at 4°C (within each replication) to determine if differences existed between fried and baked and rice or wheat treatments. The CIE L*a*b* values were determined using a chroma meter [25] that was calibrated using a standard Minolta calibration plate [25] each time before testing.
Textural Quality
Textural evaluation was performed by shearing 6 chicken nuggets from each treatment (4°C) along the 4-cm axis using a Warner-Bratzler shear device that was attached to a computer-interfaced Instron [26] to determine if differences in texture existed between fried or baked and rice or wheat treatments. The Instron was equipped with a 50-kg load cell with a crosshead speed of 200 mm/min and a 10% load range. The average maximum peak force (N) required to shear an individual whole nugget was recorded for each treatment. Color and texture measurements were taken on the same 6 chicken nuggets.
Proximate Analysis
Three individual breaded nuggets were ground into 1 composite sample for proximate analysis that was performed on each treatment within each replication. Percentage moisture was measured [27] in triplicate for each treatment using a drying oven [28]. Percentage protein was measured [29] in triplicate by the combustion method [30]. Crude fat content (%) was measured [31] in triplicate using a fat extractor [32], and percentage ash was measured in triplicate using a muffle furnace [33]. Percentage carbohydrate was calculated by subtracting percentage moisture, protein, fat, and ash from 100%, and percentage of total calories attributable to fat, protein, and carbohydrate for each treatment were also calculated. Percentage fat calories were calculated for each treatment using the following equation: (9 kcal x g of fat)/(9 kcal x g of fat + 4 kcal x g of protein + 4 kcal x g of carbohydrate). Percentage protein calories were calculated for each treatment using the following equation: (4 kcal x g of protein)/(9 kcal x g of fat + 4 kcal x g of protein + 4 kcal x g of carbohydrate) x 100. Percentage carbohydrate calories were calculated using the following equation: (4 kcal x g of carbohydrates)/(9 kcal x g of fat + 4 kcal x g of protein + 4 kcal x g of carbohydrate) x 100.
Sensory Evaluation
Three consumer-based sensory panels (n = 50 to 54 panelists per replication), 1 for each replication of chicken nuggets, were conducted to determine the consumer acceptability of nugget treatments. Each panel consisted of students, staff, and faculty at Mississippi State University with ages ranging from 18 to 60 yr old and a median age of 25 yr. Each chicken nugget was heat processed as previously described, stored at 4°C for 1 d, and then reheated to 77°C by microwaving for 20 s according to packaging instructions of chicken nuggets currently available in the grocery store [34]. Microwaving was utilized to reheat the samples, even though baking is the preferred reheating method for chicken nuggets [23], because it would not have been possible to reheat the chicken nuggets in the oven and have them ready at the various times that consumers arrived to taste the samples. Keeping the nuggets warm throughout the panel (3 h) by baking could dry out the samples and negatively affect texture. Moreover, this would not be consistent with any reheating instructions currently on chicken nugget packages. A random 3-digit number was incorporated to identify the samples, and each consumer evaluated 6 treatment samples (1 chicken nugget per treatment). Between samples, consumers were asked to rinse their mouths with tap water. The samples were evaluated using a 9-point hedonic scale [35] and each consumer was asked to rate the overall acceptability of the chicken nugget sample. The category definitions were defined as 1 = dislike extremely, 2 = dislike very much, 3 = dislike moderately, 4 = dislike slightly, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 6 = like slightly, 7 = like moderately, 8 = like very much, and 9 = like extremely. Agglomerative hierarchical clustering was performed to cluster consumers together based on their liking of chicken nuggets to determine the potential marketability of each treatment [36, 37]. Consumers were also asked how likely they would be to purchase each product as well as if they would be more likely to purchase the product if it had a potential health benefit over other chicken nuggets that are currently on the market.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical software [38] was utilized to perform statistical tests [36, 37, 38] to separate treatment means [39] for all responses measured.
|
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
|
|---|
Cooked Color and Textural Quality
Fried chicken nugget products were darker (lower CIE L* value) than any of the baked nuggets (Table 1
). Dry batter products for wheat and rice were also lighter than their wet batter counterparts. Fried products had higher redness and yellowness values than all baked products revealing that there was much more intense color and darkness in the fried products than the baked products. All samples were very tender when compared with other chicken nuggets that have been researched [40], and the fried samples were more tender than the rice flour, wet batter, baked nugget. The fried wheat flour nugget was more tender than the rice flour, dry batter, baked chicken nugget, which implies improved quality, but there were no differences between rice and wheat flour treatments within each baked (wet or dry batter) or fried treatment and there were no other differences among all other treatments (Table 1).
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Table 1. Cooked color and shear force of chicken nuggets coated with dry or wet wheat and rice flour, and heat processed by baking or frying1
|
|
Moisture, Fat, Protein, and Carbohydrate Contents
Differences were evident in moisture content among treatments (Table 2). Samples formulated with rice batter had lower moisture content than samples formulated with wheat batter in all treatments except for the wet batter, baked treatments. This is probably due to increased moisture loss during the heating process due to the chemical nature of rice [9] as well as the increased carbohydrate percentage in samples formulated with rice batter. On average (using orthogonal contrasts), protein percentage was higher in dry batter, baked treatments than in wet batter treatments; it was the lowest in fried products. But protein percentage was higher with rice flour than wheat flour in wet batter treatments, and the wheat flour treatment had a higher percentage of protein than the rice flour treatment in dry batter, baked treatments. The lower protein percentages in fried products compared with baked nuggets are directly related to the higher fat percentages in the fried treatments (Table 2). In the dry batter, baked sample, rice flour had higher carbohydrate percentages than wheat flour treatments. Previous research has shown that this may be due to wheat flour absorbing more lipid than rice flour, thus causing it to have a lower carbohydrate percentage [9]. There was also a higher carbohydrate percentage in the rice batter treatment than the wheat-based treatment in fried nuggets. These results coincide with reports from other researchers [10, 41] who showed that there was increased batter pickup when rice was substituted for wheat in the manufacture of fried chicken drumsticks. Frying nuggets increased fat content by 60 and 27%, respectively, when compared with wet and dry batter treatments (Table 2). The baked wheat treatments also had a lower fat percentage than the baked rice treatments, but there was no more than a 2% fat calorie increase for the rice treatments. There was an increase in carbohydrate percentage in rice treatments compared with wheat treatments. Percentage ash ranged from 2.6 to 3.2% for treatments, and the sum of the fat, protein, carbohydrate, moisture, and ash equaled 100% for all treatments.
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Table 2. Percentage moisture, protein, fat, and carbohydrate, and consumer acceptability, purchase intent, and perceived health benefit of chicken nuggets coated with a dry and wet batter, made with wheat or rice flour, and heat processed by baking or frying
|
|
Baking chicken nuggets caused an increase in percentage of protein calories compared with fried samples (Figure 1). There was a higher percentage of protein calories in wheat samples when compared with rice samples, but this difference was directly related to the carbohydrate calories, which may be higher in rice-based treatments due to their potential for increased batter retention [9, 10, 41]. Wet and dry batter baked treatments had lower fat calorie percentages than the wet batter fried treatment, and wet batter baked nuggets also had a lower fat calorie percentage than the dry batter baked treatments, predominantly due to increased batter retention and an increased ability to retain moisture.
View larger version (33K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Figure 1. Percentage calories for fat, protein, and carbohydrate for chicken nuggets coated with a dry or wet wheat and rice batter, and heat processed by baking or frying (n = 1 per replication). a–fBar means among treatments with unlike superscript letters are different (P < 0.05). Standard error bars are included for each treatment.
|
|
Consumer Acceptability
All samples received mean scores of "like slightly" for consumer acceptability (Table 2
). The rice flour, dry batter, baked treatment was preferred over both baked wet (wheat and rice) batter chicken nuggets, but there were no other differences among treatments. However, consumers stated they would be as likely to purchase the rice flour, dry batter nuggets as they were the wheat flour, wet batter, fried nuggets. There was also an increase in purchase intent (percentage of consumers who would buy the product) for the rice flour, dry batter, baked nugget over the rice and wheat flour, wet batter, baked treatments and the rice flour, fried treatment (Table 2). This reveals the potential marketability of baked rice and wheat flour chicken nuggets because they have lower fat contents than the fried wet batter, wheat chicken nugget and are acceptable to consumers. The dry batter, baked rice flour product could increase the dietary possibilities of consumers who have celiac disease or a wheat allergy. Consumers also appeared to be more likely to buy this product because it had higher purchase intent when there was a perceived health benefit compared with all other treatments except the wheat flour, dry batter treatment (Table 2). This would further enhance the marketability of this product and help create a market niche.
Due to variations in consumer preference for products, agglomerative hierarchical clustering was performed to group consumers into 6 clusters based on their chicken nugget preferences (Table 3). Cluster 1 (16% of panelists) preferred fried nuggets and baked nuggets made with rice-based wet batter. Cluster 2 (12% of consumers) did not like any of the chicken nugget treatments but preferred fried wheat nuggets to both wheat and rice wet batter, baked treatments. Cluster 3 included 14% of the consumers; they preferred rice flour nuggets to wheat flour nuggets and preferred rice flour, dry batter baked nuggets to fried nuggets. Cluster 4 (22% of the panelists) liked all nuggets slightly or moderately but preferred fried nuggets to baked nuggets. Cluster 5 (16% of consumers) liked rice flour dry batter, baked nuggets moderately to very much and preferred this treatment to all other treatments. This consumer group also liked the baked and fried, wheat wet batter treatments slightly. Cluster 6 (18% of panelists) liked all chicken nugget treatments between "like moderately" and "like very much" and had the highest degree of liking for all treatments compared with all other clusters. These results reveal that there is a market for a variety of chicken nugget products. Consumers liked fried treatments, but consumers who liked nuggets did not differ in their liking of rice and wheat fried, chicken nuggets. Results also revealed that the rice flour dry batter and wheat flour wet batter baked treatments had the greatest acceptability among all of the baked treatments.
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Table 3. Mean scores in the hedonic scale for overall consumer acceptability of 6 chicken nugget treatments according to different clusters of consumer segments1
|
|
Results demonstrated further that the majority of consumers found the rice flour, dry batter, baked treatment acceptable. Even though this product has an excellent market potential as demonstrated by purchase intent data, it could not take the place of fried, wheat-based nuggets because they are acceptable to a large proportion of consumers. However, rice could be substituted for wheat in fried products with added health benefits and without decreasing product acceptability in some consumer groups [9].
|
CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
|
|---|
- Rice-based, low-fat chicken nuggets can be formulated to meet a niche market of health-conscious consumers and individuals with celiac disease or wheat allergies.
- Baked nuggets formulated with wheat or rice in dry and wet batters have substantially less fat content compared with wet batter fried nuggets without compromising product acceptability in some consumer groups.
- The majority of consumers preferred fried, wheat-based chicken nuggets or rice-based, dry batter baked chicken nuggets.
|
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
|
|---|
Approved for publication as Journal Article No. J-10860 of the Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station. This work was supported by a USDA-CSREES Special Grant (2003-34231-13064) and the Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station under project MIS-501080.
|
REFERENCES AND NOTES
|
|---|
- Thompson, T. 2005. National Institutes of Health consensus statement on celiac disease. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 105:194–195.[ISI][Medline]
- Fasana, A., I. Berti, T. Gerarduzzi, R. B. Coletti, S. Drago, Y. Elitsur, P. H. Green, S. Guandalini, I. D. Hill, M. Pietzak, D. Kry, F. Fornardi, S. S. Wasserman, J. A. Murray, and K. Horvath. 2003. Prevalence of celiac disease in at-risk and not-at-risk groups in the United States: A large multicenter study. Arch. Intern. Med. 163:286–292.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
- Loewe, R. 1993. Role of ingredients in batter systems. Cereal Foods World 38:673–677.
- Gallagher, E., T. R. Gormley, and E. K. Arendt. 2004. Recent advances in the formulations of gluten-free cereal based products. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 15:143–152.
- Thompson, T. 2001. Wheat starch, gliadin, and the gluten-free diet. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 101:1456–1459.[ISI][Medline]
- Zarkadas, M., and S. Case. 2005. Celiac disease and the gluten-free diet: An overview. Top. Clin. Nutr. 20:127–138.
- The Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network. 2005. http://www.foodallergy.org/allergens.html Accesses Dec. 15, 2005.
- A. R. 2005. Celiac disease. Detection and treatment. Top. Clin. Nutr. 20:139–145.
- Pszczola, D. E. 2001. Rice: Not just for throwing. Food Technol. 55:53–59.[Medline]
- Shih, F. F., and K. W. Daigle. 1999. Oil uptake properties of fried batters from rice flour. J. Agric. Food Chem. 47:1611–1615.[ISI][Medline]
- Mukprasit, A., T. J. Herald, D. L. Boyle, and E. A. E. Boyle. 2001. Physiochemical and microbiological properties of selected rice flour-based batters for fried chicken drumsticks. Poult. Sci. 80:988–996.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
- Center for Disease Control. 2005. http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/Accessed Dec. 15, 2005.
- Sanderson Farms, Laurel, MS.
- Chicken Nuggets and Chicken Patties: Commodity Specification—USDA. May 1998. http://www.ams.usda.gov/poultry/cp/chicken/chkn-histspecific.htm
- Model 106622F, General Electric, Bentonville, AR.
- Perfect Blend Seasonings, Lawry’s Foods Inc., Monrovia, CA.
- Pillsbury All Purpose Flour, The J. M. Smucker Co., Orrville, OH.
- Rice Flour, Sage V Foods. Freeport, TX.
- Maillose Dry, Red Arrow Products Company LLC, Manitowoc, WI.
- Model Acu Rite, Chaney Instrument Co., Lake Geneva, WI.
- Model JBP25DOJ2WH, General Electric, Louisville, KY.
- Mazola Corn Oil, ACH Food Company Inc., Memphis, TN.
- Gerdes, S. 2001. Batters and Breading Liven Taste. http://www.foodproductdesign.com/archive/2001/1201de.htm
- Ziploc brand bags, S.C. Johnson & Son, Inc., Racine, WI.
- Chroma meter Model CR-200, Minolta Camera Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan. Calibration white plate, No 20933026; CIE L* 97.91, a* –0.70, b* +2.44.
- Model 1011, Instron Corp., Canton, MA.
- AOAC. 1995. Method 39.1.02 in Official Methods of Analysis. 16th ed. Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chem., Washington, DC.
- Model 516G, Fisher Isotemp 500 Series, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA.
- AOAC. 2000. Method 4.2.08 in Official Methods of Analysis. 17th ed. Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chem., Washington, DC.
- Model FP-528, LECO Corp., St. Joseph, MI.
- AOAC. 2000. Method 39.1.05 in Official Methods of Analysis. 17th ed. Assoc. Offic. Anal Chem., Washington, DC.
- Model 1043, Soxtec HT Extraction Unit; Tecator, Hoganas, Sweden.
- Model Isotemp, Fisher Programmable Muffle Furnace; Fisher, Pittsburgh, PA.
- Chick’ n Quick chicken nuggets; Tyson Foods, Springdale, AR.
- Meilgaard, M., G. V. Civille, and B. T. Carr. 1991. Affective Tests. Pages 201–226 in Sensory Evaluation Techniques. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
- Everitt, B. S., S. Landau, and M. Leese. 2001. Hierarchical Clustering. Pages 55–89 in Cluster Analysis. Oxford University Press Inc., Publishers, New York, NY.
- Ward, J. H. 1963. Hierarchical groupings to optimize an objective function. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 58:236–244.
- SAS Institute. 1999. Version 8. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC.
- A completely randomized design with 3 replications was utilized to determine differences (P < 0.05) among treatments in regards to cooked color, textural quality, proximate analysis, purchase intent, and increased health benefit. When significant differences occurred for a response (P < 0.05), the least significant differance test was performed to separate treatment means. Orthogonal contrasts (P < 0.05) were also utilized to examine difference between batter type, cooking method, and flour source. For batter types, differences in treatments could only be determined for baked treatments because fried dry batter treatments were not formulated in the experiment. A randomized complete block design was utilized to determine the average difference (P < 0.05) in consumer acceptability among treatments. Blocking was performed to account for variation in panelists. When significant differences occurred for a response (P < 0.05), the least significant difference test was performed to separate treatment means. Agglomerate hierarchical clustering was performed using Ward’s method to cluster consumers together based on their preference and liking of chicken nuggets treatments. A dendrogram and a dissimilarity plot were used to determine how many clusters should be utilized to group consumers. After this cluster analysis was performed, randomized complete block designs were utilized to determine differences (P < 0.05) among treatments within each cluster. When significant differences occurred for a response (P < 0.05) within each cluster, the least significant difference test was performed to separate treatment means.
- Prinyawiwatkul, W., K. H. McWatters, L. R. Beuchat, and R. D. Phillips. 1997. Physicochemical and sensory properties of chicken nuggets extended with fermented cowpea and peanut flours. J. Agric. Food Chem. 45:1891–1899.
- Mukprasit, A., T. J. Herald, D. L. Boyle, and K. D. Rausch. 2000. Adhesion of rice flour-based batter to chicken drumsticks evaluated by laser scanning confocal microscopy and texture analysis. Poult. Sci. 79:1356–1363.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
TOP
SUMMARY
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
