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J APPL POULT RES 2007. 16:99-106
© 2007 Poultry Science Association
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Poultry Meat and Egg Quality Symposium

Functionality of Poultry Meat

M. A. Grashorn1

Department of Farm Animal Ethology and Poultry Science, Institute of Animal Breeding and Husbandry, University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany

Correspondence: 1 Corresponding author: michael.grashorn{at}gmx.de


   SUMMARY
TOP
 SUMMARY
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
Functional foods are foods enriched with single ingredients, which influence 1 or more functions of the consumer in a favorable way, exceeding the effects of normal adequate nutrition. Consumers can expect health benefits from these products. The production of functional poultry meat is a promising future perspective, although the market share of such products will be small. The objective of the present paper was to summarize some examples of functional poultry meat. Substances of interest for this purpose are fatty acids and antioxidants. Enrichment of poultry meat with these health-promoting substances is not really a new approach, but there exists a potential for meeting the recommended daily intake for humans despite a probable negative effect on product quality. In the past, many papers were published showing that poultry meat can be enriched with conjugated linoleic acid, omega-3 fatty acids, and Se in such a way that 100 g of enriched tissue meets 3 to 11, 70 to 130, and 60% of the recommended daily intake for humans, respectively. However, the occurrence of tough meat (conjugated linoleic acid) and an increased liability to oxidation (omega-3 fatty acids) may impair the use of functional poultry meat. More research is needed, both on these negative effects on human requirements for these substances and possible interactions between enriched components.

Key Words: poultry meat • functional food • fatty acid • {alpha}-tocopherol • selenium


   DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
Poultry meat is an accepted valuable source of nutrients for consumers. In general, consumers are interested in good tasting and healthy food with relevance to nutritional physiology. At the same time, they are afraid of potentially harmful ingredients such as drug residues, intoxicants, allergenic components, and microbial contamination, which may contribute to health problems. On the other hand, consumers are more and more interested in products enriched with beneficial components (for example, probiotics in yogurt), which will improve their well-being. Therefore, consumers decide to buy food with special "healthy" contents and, what is also important, they are willing to pay more money for healthy food. One restriction for this kind of improved food is that it has to be produced in a natural way. One way to fulfill these demands is the production of "functional foods."

Functional foods are foods that influence one or more functions of the consumer in a favorable way, exceeding the effects of normal adequate nutrition [1]. This definition can be extended to cover the fact that functional foods may also assure the recommended daily intake (RDI) of relevant substances, which are often lacking in a daily diet. Therefore, functional foods can improve the health and well-being of humans and may reduce the risk of metabolic disease. Functional foods are produced in a natural way by enriching existing components and thus correspond to human expectations of this type of product. Functional poultry meat may be capable of enhancing the status of poultry meat and in this way further increase poultry meat consumption. It can therefore be confirmed that enriching poultry meat with health-promoting substances is an interesting future issue for poultry meat production [2], as was the case for eggs [3].

The objective of the present paper was to summarize some examples of functional poultry meat and give an insight into the future perspectives of poultry meat production. Substances of interest for this purpose are fatty acids and anti-oxidants. Although enrichment of poultry meat with these health-promoting substances cannot be considered a new approach [4], the paper will demonstrate the potential for meeting the RDI of humans and the known probable effect on product quality.

Substances of Interest and Human RDI
Substances of interest are omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acid, {alpha}-tocopherol, and Se. Recommended daily intake levels are available for these substances, which may nevertheless vary between sources and countries. In the present paper, RDI relevant for Europe will be used [5].

n-3 Fatty Acids.
n-3 Fatty acids are essential fatty acids with at least 3 double bonds, the first one at carbon atom 3 (starting counting from the terminal methyl group). In contrast, omega-6 (n-6) fatty acids are essential fatty acids with at least 2 double bonds, the first at carbon atom 6. Both n-3 and n-6 fatty acids are precursors of eicosanoids, biological effectors such as prostaglandins, leucotriens, and thromboxanes regulating mainly the cardiovascular system and immunological processes. Eicosanoids built from n-6 fatty acids contribute to cardiovascular diseases and inflammation processes, whereas eicosanoids built from n-3 fatty acids act as opponents. As in a common pathway system, arachidonic acid (C20:4n-6; precursor of series 2 eicosanoids) is metabolized from linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) and eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-3; precursor of series 3 eicosanoids) from linolenic acid (C18:3n-3), catalyzed by the same enzymes, the relation of n-6 and n-3 substrate is important for the effect on metabolism. The optimal ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids in the human diet is 10:1 to 5:1 [6, 7, 8, 9]. This optimal ratio is only reached in human diets in countries where sea fish is a considerable part of food intake, for example Japan or Greenland (Table 1Go). In western countries, plants and farm animal products have been substituted for sea fish in the human diet, resulting in an excess intake of n-6 fatty acids. It is well known that the high intake of n-6 fatty acids in relation to n-3 fatty acids causes pathological changes in humans (Table 2Go) [10, 11]. Besides diseases of the cardiovascular system inflammation processes, diabetes mellitus, cancer, visual impairment, and disturbed development of the brain in growing embryos are all proven negative effects. Therefore, human nutritionists recommend that not more than 30% of dietary energy should come from fat; that the relation among saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) should equal 1:1:1; and that the relation between n-6 and n-3 fatty acids should be less than 5:1. The RDI for n-3 long-chain PUFA is 350 to 400 mg.


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  		Table 1. Relationship between n-6:n-3 fatty acids in food and cardiac infarction incidence in different human populations [9]
 

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  		Table 2. Pathological changes in humans caused by an increased dietary intake of n-6 fatty acids in relation to n-3 fatty acids [10]
 
Conjugated Linoleic Acid.
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has 2 double bonds, 1 in cis and 1 in trans configuration. It is well documented that CLA acts anticarcinogenic, prohibits arteriosclerosis, improves the immune system, and reduces plasma cholesterol and fatness [12, 13, 14, 15]. Fat reduction may also be an issue in broiler fattening. Conjugated linoleic acid requirements in humans are mainly met by the consumption of milk, milk products, and other animal-derived products. In ruminants, CLA is synthesized from other fatty acids in the rumen. The RDI of CLA in humans is 0.1% of daily food consumption, which is estimated in Europe as 2.4 kg in males and 2.0 kg in females, resulting in RDI values for CLA of 2.4 and 2 g/d, respectively [15].

Antioxidants.
Oxygen is an important atom in nature, despite its role in oxidative processes. In organisms, many natural substances are prone to oxidation. In the initiation phase, carbon-centered free radicals are built from a precursor molecule. These free radicals react with O and build peroxyl radicals, which start the propagation phase. At this stage, a highly reactive peroxyl radical is formed that can attack any available peroxidizable molecules, resulting in a chain reaction with many potential cycles of peroxidation [16, 17, 18]. Free radicals are highly reactive substances damaging cell membranes; injuring heart, vascular, brain, and nervous and muscle systems; impairing immune competence [18], and in this way, they are involved in the occurrence of cancer. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are especially prone to oxidation. Antioxidants are capable of prohibiting oxidative processes. Three levels of antioxidant defense are known: 1) prevention of radical formation (e.g., superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase), 2) prevention and restriction of chain formation and propagation (e.g., vitamins A, E, C, carotenoids), and 3) excision and repair of damaged parts of molecules (e.g., lipases, peptidases, DNA repair enzymes) [18]. The most important natural antioxidant, {alpha}-tocopherol, is involved in the second level of defense, whereas Se is involved in the first level (glutathione peroxidase). Both antioxidants reduce the risk of cancer and the incidence of cardiovascular diseases in humans. The RDI of {alpha}-tocopherol is 10 mg and for Se is 47 µg (Germany) or 70 µg (UK) [19].

Level of Enrichment
To enrich poultry meat with n-3 fatty acids, CLA, {alpha}-tocopherol, and Se suitable dietary sources for bird nutrition have to be available. Algae products, linseed oil, hemp oil, or rape-seed oil (RO) may be suitable sources for n-3 fatty acid enrichment [20]. Conjugated linoleic acid is available as a formulated product and {alpha}-tocopherol derives from biotechnological production [13]. Selenium is available in an inorganic form and as organoselenium (bound to a protein). The latter, SelPlex, has been on the market for roughly 10 yr and is absorbed more effectively than the inorganic form [21].

Crespo and Esteve-Garcia [14] fed broilers different dietary fat sources (6 to 10%) and observed the highest content of n-3 fatty acids in breast and thigh muscles for linseed oil (LO; Table 3Go). In breast muscle, 205 mg of n-3 PUFA/ g of fat was determined, whereas in thigh muscle, it was 244 mg/g of fat. Considering a fat content of 1.4% in breast muscle and 2.2% in thigh muscle, this amounted to 287 and 537 mg of n-3 PUFA/100 g of tissue, respectively. Therefore, using LO as a dietary source of n-3 fatty acids in broilers resulted in tissue contents of n-3 fatty acids meeting human RDI by 70% and 130%, respectively.


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  		Table 3. Total contents of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in chicken breast and thigh meat using different dietary fat sources (in mg/g of fat) [14]
 
Enrichment of CLA in tissue is not as effective as the enrichment of n-3 PUFA. In an experiment in which CLA was added to broiler diets to the amount of 0, 2, and 4 %, the CLA content of breast meat and thigh meat could be increased by 46 and 38 times for the highest supplementation level (Table 4Go) [22]. The enrichment of CLA in tissue was mainly in excess of monounsaturated fatty acids and PUFA (without CLA). On the other hand, there was a distinct increase in the content of SFA. Despite this marked increase in the content of CLA, breast and thigh meat can only meet 3.5 and 9.0% of human RDI for CLA, respectively.


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  		Table 4. Content of saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acids [(PUFA) without conjugated fatty acids (CLA)], and CLA in breast and thigh meat depending on the dietary content of CLA (mg/100 g of tissue) [22]
 
It is well known that muscle tissue is easily enriched with {alpha}-tocopherol by supplementing diets with this antioxidant. But, the content of oxidizable substrate (for example, PUFA) in diet and in tissues is important for the achievable enrichment level [23]. Muggli [24] calculated necessary supplementation levels for {alpha}-tocopherol for prohibiting oxidative processes in tissues. Recently, Cortinas et al. [25] demonstrated that by increasing dietary contents of PUFA, the deposition of {alpha}-tocopherol in thigh muscle tissue decreased (Table 5Go). This was mainly explained by the use of {alpha}-tocopherol for the prevention of oxidative processes in tissue in vivo. But, diets with low PUFA contents and high {alpha}-tocopherol content result in a significant enrichment of {alpha}-tocopherol in thigh meat, meeting up to 55% of the human RDI. On the contrary, diets with high PUFA contents will reduce the deposition of {alpha}-tocopherol in tissues to an extent that <15% of human RDI may be met.


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  		Table 5. Effect of dietary unsaturation and {alpha}-tocopheryl acetate supplementation on {alpha}-tocopherol content in thigh meat with skin (mg/kg of thigh; dietary fat content of 2 to 8%; SEM = 1.84; P < 0.0001) [25]
 
As already proven in the case of eggs, chicken meat can also be easily enriched with Se. Yaroshenko et al. [19] demonstrated that supplementation of diets with 0.4 to 0.8 mg/kg resulted in an increase of Se in the meat by the factor 3.5 (Figure 1Go). Despite the different fat contents of breast and thigh meat, no differences in the enrichment levels were observed. In general, Se-enriched chicken meat may meet 60% of human RDI.


Figure 1
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  		Figure 1. Selenium content of Se-enriched chicken meat (Se supplementation at 0.4 to 0.8 mg/kg of diet) [19].

 
Effect on Meat Quality
Enrichment of poultry meat with health-promoting substances results in a change of the composition of muscle tissues. In this way, meat quality features may also be modified. It is well known that increasing the content of PUFA in muscle tissues alters the sensory attributes of the meat [26, 27, 28, 29]. In particular, the use of fish oil (FO) for enrichment may cause off-flavors due to fish-typical substances deposited in the tissue and due to increased lipid oxidation [30]. This negative effect on sensory quality was also reported for the use of linseed oil, because linolenic acid as the dominating fatty acid is believed to initiate oxidative processes. Lopez-Ferrer et al. [31] used FO as a dietary n-3 fatty acid source over a 5-wk fattening period in broilers. To test the effect of FO on sensory attributes of broiler breast and thigh meat, FO (8.2% of diet) was sequentially substituted by LO and RO in the diet (Table 6Go). The experimental design was as follows: 5 wk of FO only; up to fourth week of FO, then LO or RO; up to third week of FO, then LO or RO; up to second week of FO, then LO or RO; 5 wk of LO or RO only. The general sensory assessment revealed that using only FO in diets resulted in the lowest acceptance levels, whereas the best sensory quality was reached with LO or RO. In general, higher sensory scores were assigned to thigh meat. Due to the changes in fatty acid profiles of lipids in tissue, the effects of enrichment on water-holding capacity and functional properties of the enriched poultry meat may also be expected [28, 31]. An example of a more positive change may be the observation that feeding PUFA-enriched diets may reduce the size of the abdominal fat pad. This may be caused by inhibition of lipogenesis, by redistribution of lipids in the body, or by a higher energy expenditure of PUFA.


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  		Table 6. Sensory assessment1 of chicken breast and thigh meat after feeding diets including fish oil (FO), linseed oil (LO), and rapeseed oil (RO) [28]
 
Enrichment of poultry meat with CLA may also affect meat quality. As shown in Table 4Go, the enrichment of CLA caused an increase in SFA in tissues. The increase in SFA resulted in higher penetration resistance values of breast meat (Table 7Go) [32]. Although the increase in resistance was distinct, no negative effect on sensory attributes was observed. Rather, there was a tendency toward improved sensory quality. Another point worth mentioning is that enrichment of chicken breast meat with CLA resulted in darker, less red, and less yellow color. Obviously, the changes in the composition of fatty acids also altered color appearance.


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  		Table 7. Effect of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on texture, color, and sensory features of chicken breast meat1 [32]
 
The positive effect of {alpha}-tocopherol due to preventing off-flavors has often been proven [33]. In general, it isn’t really expected that {alpha}-tocopherol will have any negative effect on meat quality. Olivo et al. [34] reported on further positive effects of {alpha}-tocopherol on functional properties of chicken meat, mainly under heat stress conditions and {alpha}-tocopherol supplementation (Table 8Go). Meat of broilers kept under heat stress conditions showed a lower degree of protein denaturation, decreased drip loss, and improved emulsifying capacity, whereas water holding capacity was not altered.


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  		Table 8. Influence of vitamin E supplementation and heat stress (HS) on functional properties of chicken meat [34]
 
Selenium, as a first-level antioxidant, effectively decreases oxidative processes in tissues, thus prohibiting the occurrence of off-flavors. Degree of oxidation may be described by the content of TBA reactive substances, which are measured as the content of malondialdehyde. Yaroshenko et al. [19] determined significantly lower contents of malondialdehyde in breast and thigh meat enriched with Se (Figure 2Go).


Figure 2
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  		Figure 2. Effect of storage (4°C, 7 d) of Se-enriched chicken meat on the content of malondialdehyde (Se supplementation at 0.4 to 0.8 mg/kg of diet) [19].

 

   CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
  1. The enrichment of poultry meat with health-promoting substances for humans is an interesting future issue in poultry meat production. Due to changing consumer behavior, the importance of this issue will increase further.
  2. Muscle tissues can effectively be enriched with n-3 fatty acids, {alpha}-tocopherol, and Se, thus meeting the requirements for functional foods, whereas enrichment with CLA is less effective.
  3. In general, functional poultry meat has to be considered as a niche production due to the higher costs of these products, due to the limited application caused by changes in quality features and due to limited proportion of consumers interested in purchasing the products.
  4. Furthermore, an assessment of the general benefit of functional poultry meat is not yet possible due to limited information on proven RDI levels of these substances and on probable interactions between the substances, which may result in a risk to human health.


   REFERENCES AND NOTES
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 

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