J. Appl. Poult. Res.
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

J APPL POULT RES 2007. 16:161-170
© 2007 Poultry Science Association
This Article
Right arrow Summary Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in ISI Web of Science
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (1)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Mushtaq, T.
Right arrow Articles by Noreen, U.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow Articles by Mushtaq, T.
Right arrow Articles by Noreen, U.

Research Reports

Dietary Sodium and Chloride for Twenty-Nine-to Forty-Two-Day-Old Broiler Chickens at Constant Electrolyte Balance Under Subtropical Summer Conditions

T. Mushtaq*,1, M. Aslam Mirza*, M. Athar*,2, D. M. Hooge{dagger}, T. Ahmad*,3, G. Ahmad*,4, M. M. H. Mushtaq* and U. Noreen{ddagger}

* Institute of Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology, and {ddagger} Department of Zoology and Fisheries, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan 38040; and {dagger} Hooge Consulting Service Inc., Eagle Mountain, UT 84043

Correspondence: 1 Corresponding author: tmmirza{at}fsd.paknet.com.pk.


   SUMMARY
TOP
 SUMMARY
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
The study was conducted to evaluate the response of broiler chicks to different dietary Na+ and Cl– concentrations with similar dietary electrolyte balance of 250 mEq/kg during 29 to 42 d of age in a hot environment with average minimum and maximum temperatures of 32.4 and 36.6°C, respectively, and an average RH of 69.2%. Three levels of dietary Na+ (0.20, 0.25, and 0.30%) and 3 levels of dietary Cl– (0.30, 0.40, and 0.50%) were used in 3 x 3 factorial arrangement in which BW at 28 d were used as covariate in the statistical analysis. A decreasing linear effect of dietary Na+ was observed on breast yield and lowering of abdominal fat, whereas increasing dietary Cl– linearly increased litter moisture and decreased dressing weights. No significant effects of dietary Na+, Cl–, or Na+ x Cl– were observed on feed intake, BW gain, feed:gain, rectal temperature, water:feed, or mortality. An improvement in litter condition, toe ash, blood parameters, and lowered abdominal fat yield was observed for the diet having 0.30% dietary Na+. The results of the present study suggest the dietary requirements of 0.20 to 0.25% Na+ and 0.30% Cl– during the finisher phase (29 to 42 d) of broiler chicks when the ambient temperature ranged from 32 to 40°C.

Key Words: sodium • chloride • broiler • hot environment • electrolyte balance


   DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
In countries like Pakistan, high environmental temperature is detrimental to broiler production. The problem is more pronounced when the broiler chickens are in the growing and finishing phases. The last 2 wk for broilers are very critical in the summer season when high growth rate leads to increased mortality and, ultimately, great economic losses. When environmental temperature exceeds the comfort zone of the bird (above 25 °C), the birds are likely to experience heat stress. Heat stress reduces the growth rate, feed consumption, and survivability of the broiler and thus decreases profitability. During periods of high temperature, the bird makes major thermo-regulatory adaptations to prevent death from heat exhaustion [1, 2]. The bird is able to control its body temperature by behavioral and physiological responses. The physiological response to heat stress is an increase in respiratory rate, resulting in excessive CO2 losses causing respiratory alkalosis and high bicarbonate excretion [3, 4, 5]. Deleterious effects of high ambient temperature may be minimized by the dietary manipulation of electrolyte salts and by maintaining dietary electrolyte balance (DEB) in heat-stressed birds [6]. Electrolytes are classified as strong or weak according to their rate of dissociation into conducting ions [7]. The optimum dietary DEB has been reported to be 220 to 270 mEq/kg for broilers of all ages, with up to 0.40% for Na+ and 0.15 to 0.30% for Cl– [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].

The requirements of dietary Na+ and Cl– for young birds have been estimated previously using a similar DEB level in different formulas [18]. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect and interaction of different levels of dietary Na+ and Cl– in growing-finishing broiler chickens (29 to 42 d of age) with a similar DEB of 250 mEq/kg and their effect on blood biochemical profile and carcass responses under cyclic day and night temperature ranges of 30 to 40°C.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
Birds and Housing
The aim of the study was to evaluate the minimum concentration of dietary Na+ and Cl–for the optimum performance of broiler chickens during periods of high ambient temperature and was conducted during late June, considered an extremely hot month in Faisalabad, Pakistan. The room was divided into 36 pens measuring 0.92 x 1.23 m and ventilated by creating negative pressure using exhaust fans fitted in the top on the eastern wall of the room. Twenty-nine-day-old male Starbro broiler chicks (n = 324) were randomly assigned to each of 36 pens, 9 chicks per pen. There were 9 treatments with 36 chicks each (4 replicate pens per treatment). Softwood shavings were used as bedding material over a concrete floor. Birds were vaccinated for infectious bursal disease on d 29. The lighting program was 23L:1D during the experimental period. Birds were kept up to 42 d of age, and cyclic day and night temperatures were followed and recorded.

Ingredients and Diets
Three levels of Na+ (0.20, 0.25, and 0.30%) were used with 3 levels of Cl– (0.30, 0.40, and 0.50%) in a 3 x 3 factorial arrangement. Before formulation, each ingredient was analyzed in triplicate for DM, CP, EE, and CF following AOAC [19]. The Na+ and K+ were analyzed by flame photometry, Cl– by titration with AgNO3 [20], total P by the aminonapthol sulfonic acid method [21], and Ca by Versinate method [22]. Only Na+, K+, and Cl– ions were used in the DEB equation [8]. All feed ingredients used in the formulation of experimental diets contributed a part of total dietary Na+, K+, and Cl–. However, the desired concentrations of Na+, K+, and Cl– were achieved by incorporating NaHCO3, NaCl, CaCl2, KCl, NH4Cl, and K2SO4. The diets were formulated using WinFeed 2.6 [23] by stochastic programming at the 95% level of confidence. To isolate the effect of dietary treatments, similar percentages of corn, wheat, broken rice, rice polishings, soybean meal, corn gluten meal (CP 60%), canola meal, molasses, L-Lys HCl, DL-Met, and vitamin-mineral premix were used in all the experimental diets (Table 1Go). The diets were offered as mash.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 1. Ingredient composition of the experimental diets
 
Each experimental diet was offered to 4 replicates having 9 birds each. Dietary amino acid contents were calculated [24] using DM and CP contents of each feed ingredient. Available P was calculated from total P [10].

Nutrient requirements met or exceeded those recommended by the NRC [10] for broiler birds, except for ME, which was lower (2,800 kcal/kg) than recommended (Table 2Go). The DEB in each case was maintained at 250 mEq/kg by the addition of K+ (Table 2Go). Minimum and maximum temperatures of the house were recorded on a daily basis. Water and diets were provided ad libitum throughout the experimental period. No periodic measurement was made on the water temperature; however, it was maintained below 30 °C.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 2. Nutrient composition of experimental diets
 
Live Performance
Body weight gain, feed intake, water intake, feed:gain ratio (corrected for mortality), water intake:feed intake ratio, mortality (%), and litter moisture (%) were evaluated at the end of 42 d. Water intake was recorded twice a day, in the morning and in the evening. Water consumption was corrected for evaporated quantity of water by placing 4 waterers containing a measured quantity of water, and difference in quantity was considered as evaporated. The water:feed intake ratio was calculated by dividing water intake (mL) by feed intake (g) during the periods. For litter moisture, all the litter of a pen was mixed thoroughly, and a representative sample of about 1,500 g was taken in a preweighed filtration cloth bag especially prepared for this purpose and was dried in a hot air oven overnight at 105°C. Rectal temperature was recorded during 1200 to 1400 h, corresponding to the hottest hours of the day. For this purpose, 1 bird from each replicate was marked and always used for rectal temperature. A digital probe was inserted 2 cm deep along the wall of the rectum and kept until a constant temperature was obtained. Mortality (%) was calculated as birds that died in a pen divided by initial number of birds in the beginning multiplied by 100.

Slaughter and Blood Data
Slaughter data and blood samples were collected at d 42. For slaughter data, 1 bird from each replicate was selected at random (except that marked for rectal temperature), slaughtered, skinned, and was used for carcass yield including giblets (% of live weight), thigh, breast, and abdominal fat yield (% of carcass). Breast yield was taken after detaching wings from the breast. Toe ash was estimated by burning all the toes at 550°C for 2 h. The temperature of the muffle furnace was not set at 600°C or above, because it was expected that this high temperature may burn the P also.

Blood was collected from the neck by cutting the jugular vein at slaughter during 1300 to 1500 h when the environmental temperature was 40°C. A portion of blood from slaughtered birds was collected in 0.01 N EDTA for blood pH. The pH was determined immediately by a pH meter already standardized with known buffer solutions. An aliquot of blood was used to separate serum for Na+ and K+ determination by flame photometry. For serum bicarbonates, samples were taken anaerobically from live birds by puncturing the wing vein when the birds were panting. Serum bicarbonates were determined immediately by the method described by Harold [25].

Statistical Analysis
Three levels of Na (0.20, 0.25, and 0.30%) and 3 levels of Cl (0.30, 0.40, and 0.50%) were analyzed as a 3 x 3 factorial design by GLM. Pen mean was an experimental unit. It was anticipated that variation in d-28 BW would affect the subsequent results, so the d-28 BW were used as covariate in the model [26]. In case of significance (P ≤ 0.05), the least significant difference test was used to compare main effects, whereas interactions were compared by Tukey’s honestly significant difference test. Linear and quadratic regression analyses were also run to estimate the Na+ and Cl– requirements for maximum response for each variable [27].


   RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
The average minimum and maximum temperature recorded during the period was 32.4 and 36.6°C, respectively, with a maximum of 40°C during the day and a minimum of 30°C during the night. The average RH recorded was 69.2%.

Feed intake, BW gain, feed:gain, and rectal temperatures are presented in Table 3Go. A water sample was also analyzed for Na+, K+, and Cl–contents. Because only traces of these ions were detected in drinking water, they were not expected to disturb the experimental structure. No significance differences due to Na+, Cl–, or Na+ x Cl– were observed on feed intake, feed:gain, or rectal temperature, indicating that different proportions of dietary Na+ and Cl– have no effects on feed:gain and rectal temperature at DEB of 250 mEq/kg.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 3. Mean ± SE of feed intake, BW gain, water consumption, and feed:gain ratio of broilers as influenced by dietary Na and Cl levels from 29 to 42 d of age under subtropical summer conditions1
 
The results of the present study were in line with the earlier findings [10, 28, 29] that have reported the Na+ requirement as 0.20%. Mushtaq et al. [18] noted a nonsignificant effect of dietary Na+ on feed intake, feed:gain, and rectal temperature. They, however, observed a linear effect of increasing dietary Na+ on BW gain. Results herein were consistent with those reported by Oviedo-Rondón et al. [14], who recommended 0.25% Na+ and 0.30% Cl– for greater feed intake in broilers. They further noticed a quadratic effect of Na+ levels on BW gain and determined that 0.26% Na+ gave maximum BW gain in broiler chicks. The results of the study herein were contrary to Maiorka et al. [30], who obtained optimal performance with 0.30% dietary Na+. Barros et al. [31] and Murakami et al. [13] reported the Na+ requirements as 0.25%. Borges et al. [16] reported lower Na+ requirements in birds reared in the thermoneutral zone than those reared under heat stress conditions.

Findings in the study herein were in agreement with Smith and Teeter [32], who reported that supplementing Na+ or K+ through drinking water did not significantly affect feed conversion ratio during cyclic day and night temperatures of 26.6 to 36.7°C in 4-wk-old broilers. The discrepancies in Na+ and Cl– requirements could be because these researchers did not fix the DEB when estimating the Na+ and Cl– requirements. Mushtaq et al. [18] observed a positive correlation of 0.57 between BW gain and feed intake, whereas no significant correlations were observed between BW gain and any other variables. No significant correlation was observed between rectal temperatures with any other variable in their study. The results of the trial herein were not consistent with those of Cooper and Washburn [33], who reported a significant correlation of body temperature with feed intake and feed:gain after 7 d of heat stress exposure.

Water consumption, water:feed, litter moisture, and mortality are presented in Table 4Go. Water consumption was significantly (P ≤ 0.007) higher (6,211.2 mL) on 0.20% dietary Na+. It was, however, not affected by the dietary Cl–. Maximum water consumption (6,252.2 mL) was noted with dietary Na+ x Cl– of 0.20 x 0.30 and minimum water consumption (5,383.6 mL) with dietary Na+ x Cl– of 0.25 x 0.50. The results of the present study did not match with the findings of Hurwitz et al. [34], Murakami et al. [12], Oviedo-Rondón et al. [14], and Mushtaq et al., [18], who reported a linear effect of dietary Na+ on water consumption. However, those reported results were not specific to the birds of 29 to 42 d of age. Birds with high initial weights significantly (P ≤ 0.001) excreted less moisture through droppings (r = –0.30). This demonstrated the ability of heavier birds to retain more water in the body, which led to improved litter condition.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 4. Mean ± SE of water consumption, water:feed ratio, litter moisture, and mortality of broilers as influenced by dietary Na and Cl levels from 29 to 42 d of age under subtropical summer conditions1
 
On dietary Na+ x Cl– of 0.25 x 0.50, minimum water consumption (5,383.6 mL), and, interestingly, minimum toe ash (P ≤ 0.001), were observed (Tables 4Go and 5Go). This contrasts with Borges et al. [15] and Ahmad and Sarwar [35], who observed the lowest rectal temperature with maximum water consumption. The interaction might depress mineral absorption, especially Ca, causing lowering of toe ash.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 5. Mean ± SE of toe ash, dressing weight, breast and leg yield, and abdominal fat of broilers as influenced by dietary Na and Cl levels from 29 to 42 d of age under subtropical summer conditions1
 
A significant effect (P ≤ 0.001) of Na+ x Cl–was observed on litter moisture. The lowest litter moisture was exhibited in a 0.30% Na+ and 0.30% Cl– combination. The response might be due to high dietary NaHCO3. The NaHCO3 has also been reported to lower the negative effects of heat stress in broilers more than other Na+ sources [17, 36]. The results of the study did not correspond to the findings of Murakami et al. [13], who observed that litter moisture increased linearly with dietary Na+ levels up to 0.35%. They, however, did not use high dietary Cl–, as was used in this study. In the present trial, litter moisture appeared to decrease as Cl– increased with 0.25% Na+, but litter moisture seemed to increase in the presence of 0.30% Na+. Possibly, litter moisture is a function of dietary K+, because minimum litter moisture was observed in the diet having the lowest level of dietary K+. Moreover, the litter moisture may be the function of DEB rather than Na+, K+, or Cl– individually. Further research is needed on this issue.

Pesti et al. [37] reported a significant (P ≤ 0.031) increase in litter moisture with drinking water supplementation of K+ as KCl. The effect of variable dietary K+ with DEB needs to be investigated. In view of this fact, litter moisture cannot be predicted as a function of water consumption. Mushtaq et al. [18] observed a linear effect of dietary Na+ (P ≤ 0.09) on 37-d mortality, and diets containing 0.20% Na+ with 0.40 or 0.50% Cl– exhibited 0% mortality.

Blood pH, serum HCO3–, serum Na+, and serum K+ are presented in Table 6Go. The effect of dietary Na+ was quadratic on blood pH (P ≤ 0.001), serum HCO3– (P ≤ 0.001), serum Na+ (P ≤ 0.018), and serum K+ (P ≤ 0.003). Maximum blood pH (7.39) was observed at 0.40% Cl–. The effect of Na+ x Cl– was significant (P ≤ 0.001) on blood pH. Birds fed the diet containing 0.25% Na+ and 0.30% Cl– showed minimum blood pH (acidosis). A significant (P ≤ 0.023) negative correlation (r = 0.38) was observed between blood pH and litter moisture. Similar response of Na+, Cl–, and Na+ x Cl– was observed on serum HCO3–. A significant (P ≤ 0.033) positive correlation of 0.39 was observed between blood pH and HCO3–. The blood pH increased with increased serum HCO3–, and as a result, the birds made some physiological adjustments to keep the blood pH near optimal (7.35). The physiological responses included increases in manure moisture and urinary excretion and significantly decreased kidney glomerular filtration rate, which is regulated by variation in Arg-vasotocin secretion [14, 37, 38]. Ruiz-Lopez and Austic [39] also reported the depression in blood pH and blood HCO3– due to high dietary Cl–. Dietary Na+ at 0.20% significantly increased serum Na+ (P ≤ 0.012) and serum K+ (P ≤ 0.001). The serum Na+ surprisingly decreased when dietary Na+ increased from 0.20 to 0.25%, and this may have been associated with the larger incremental increases of about + 0.10% in dietary K+ compared with +0.05% increases in dietary Na+ in those formulas. Increasing dietary Cl– from 0.30 to 0.40% decreased serum Na+ (P ≤ 0.001) and serum K+ (P ≤ 0.019). Serum K+ significantly (P ≤ 0.020) increased water consumption (r = 0.39).


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table 6. Mean ± SE of blood pH, serum HCO3–, serum Na+, and serum K+ of broilers as influenced by dietary Na and Cl levels from 29 to 42 d of age under subtropical summer conditions1
 
In the present study, a significant effect of dietary Na+, Cl–, or Na x Cl was observed on blood pH, serum Na+, and serum K+. Increasing dietary Na+ increased serum HCO3– in linear fashion. The effects of different levels of dietary Na+ or Cl– were more pronounced on blood parameters and carcass, which supported the view that the DEB can be used as a good criterion to predict or adjust acid-base status of the blood [13].

Toe ash and carcass responses are shown in Table 5Go. Dietary Na+ at 0.30% significantly (P ≤ 0.001) increased toe ash, whereas dietary Cl–above 0.30% lowered (P ≤ 0.016) the toe ash linearly (y = 13.207 – 0.295x; R2 = 0.71). The effect of Na+ x Cl– was significant (P ≤ 0.001) for toe ash, which was lowest on the diet containing 0.25% Na+ and 0.50% Cl–. The results of the present study confirmed the finding of Ahmad et al. [17], who reported a significant decrease in Ca2+ absorption on high dietary Cl– (as CaCl2) in heat-stressed broilers.

Breast yield decreased linearly (P ≤ 0.017) by increasing dietary Na+, whereas a quadratic effect (P ≤ 0.001) was observed on abdominal fat. The lowest abdominal fat was observed at 0.25% Na+. No significant effect of Na+ was observed either on dressing weight or thigh yield (Table 5Go). A quadratic (P ≤ 0.008) effect of Cl–was observed on thighs, which had the highest percentage at 0.40% Cl–. Abdominal fat and breast yield were not significantly affected by dietary Cl–. The effect of Na+ x Cl– was significant for breast (P ≤ 0.022), thigh (P ≤ 0.043), and abdominal fat (P ≤ 0.001). Diets having 0.25% Na+ and 0.30% Cl– decreased breast and abdominal fat but were without effect on thigh yield. The results of the study herein agree with the findings of Mushtaq et al. [18], who observed maximum dressing weight and thigh with 0.40% dietary Cl– and maximum breast yield and the lowest abdominal fat yield with 0.30% dietary Na+. Similarly, the nonsignificant effect of electrolytes on carcass characteristics has been reported [40] when provided by KCl and NaCl in the drinking water of broilers grown at elevated temperatures. Contrarily, Hooge et al. [41, 42] tested NaHCO3 at levels of 0 to 0.4% inclusion in broiler chicken diets in pen trials across several seasons. Dietary NaHCO3 levels of 0.2 to 0.4% gave significant improvements in BW, carcass yield, breast yield, and, occasionally, abdominal fat pad, although not all responses were found in all studies [41, 42].


   CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
REFERENCES AND NOTES
 

  1. Dietary levels of 0.20 to 0.23% for Na+ and 0.30% for Cl–, while maintaining the DEB of 250 mEq/kg, were sufficient for optimum performance of broiler chickens reared under a hot summer environment when the cyclic temperature ranged from 30 to 40°C.
  2. Additional benefits of higher dietary Na– and Cl– observed in broiler chickens were improved bone mineralization (greatest toe ash with 0.30% Na+ and 0.30% Cl– in the diets) and thigh yields (highest overall with 0.40% Cl– in the diets) and lower abdominal fat (lowest with 0.30% Na+ and 0.30% Cl– in diets).
  3. Litter moisture was significantly lower when using 0.30% dietary Cl– compared with 0.40 and 0.50% levels.


   FOOTNOTES
 
2 Present address: Hi-Tech Feeds, Lahore, Pakistan. Back

3 Present address: Department of Animal Sciences, University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Back

4 Present address: Sadiq Brothers Poultry, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Back


   REFERENCES AND NOTES
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 

  1. Teeter, R. G., M. O. Smith, F. N. Owens, S. C. Arp, S. Sangiah, and J. E. Breazile. 1985. Chronic heat stress and respiratory alkalosis: Occurrence and treatment in broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 64:1060–1064.[ISI][Medline]
  2. Deaton, J. W., F. N. Reece, S. L. Branton, and J. D. May. 1986. High environmental temperature and broiler livability. Poult. Sci. 65:1268–1269.[ISI]
  3. Calder, W. A., and G. M. Cox. 1968. Panting and blood carbon dioxide in birds. Am. J. Physiol. 215:477–482.[Free Full Text]
  4. Frankel, H. M., and D. Frascella. 1968. Blood respiratory gases, lactate and pyruvate during thermal stress in the chicken. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 127:997–999.[Medline]
  5. Branton, S. L., F. N. Reece, and J. W. Deaton. 1986. Use of ammonium chloride and sodium bicarbonate in acute heat exposure of broilers. Poult. Sci. 65:1659–1663.[ISI][Medline]
  6. Mushtaq, T. Sep. 2004. How to tackle heat stress in broilers. Pakistan Poultry Magazine. 11.
  7. Hooge, D. M. 2003. Practicalities of using dietary sodium and potassium supplements to improve poultry performance. Page 19 in Proc. Ark. Nutr. Conf., Fayetteville. Poult. Fed., Little Rock, AR.
  8. Mongin, P. 1981. Recent advances in dietary cation-anion balance: Applications in poultry. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 40:285–294.[ISI][Medline]
  9. Karunajeewa, H., D. A. Barr, and M. Fox. 1986. Effect of dietary phosphorus concentration and electrolyte balance on the growth performance of broiler chickens. Br. Poult. Sci. 27:601–612.[ISI][Medline]
  10. NRC. 1994. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 9th revised ed. Natl. Res. Counc., Washington, DC.
  11. Teeter, R. G., and T. Belay. 1995. Potassium’s Evolving Role in Poultry Electrolyte Nutrition. Feed Ingredients-IMC Agrico, Mundelein, IL.
  12. Murakami, A. E., E. A. Saleh, S. E. Watkins, and P. W. Waldroup. 2000. Sodium source and level in broiler diets with and without high levels of animal protein. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 9:53–61.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  13. Murakami, A. E., E. O. Oviedo-Rondón, E. N. Martins, M. S. Pereira, and C. Scapinello. 2001. Sodium and chloride requirements of growing broiler chickens (twenty-one to forty-two days of age) fed corn-soybean diets. Poult. Sci. 80:289–294.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  14. Oviedo-Rondón, E. O., A. E. Murakami, A. C. Furlan, I. Moreira, and M. Macari. 2001. Sodium and chloride requirements of young broiler chickens fed corn-soybean diets (one to twenty-one days of age). Poult. Sci. 80:592–598.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  15. Borges, S. A., A. V. Fischer da Silva, J. Ariki, D. M. Hooge, and K. R. Cummings. 2003. Dietary electrolyte balance for broiler chickens under moderately high ambient temperatures and relative humidities. Poult. Sci. 82:301–308.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  16. Borges, S. A., A. V. Fischer da Silva, J. Ariki, D. M. Hooge, and K. R. Cummings. 2003. Dietary electrolyte balance for broiler chickens exposed to thermoneutral or heat-stress environments. Poult. Sci. 82:428–435.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  17. Ahmad, T., M. Sarwar, M. U. Nisa, A. U. Haq, and Z. U. Hasan. 2005. Influence of varying sources of dietary electrolytes on the performance of broilers reared in a high temperature environment. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 120:277–298.
  18. Mushtaq, T., M. Sarwar, H. Nawaz, M. A. Mirza, and T. Ahmad. 2005. Effect and interactions of dietary sodium and chloride on broiler starter performance (hatching to twenty-eight days of age) under subtropical summer conditions. Poult. Sci. 84:1716–1722.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  19. AOAC. 1990. Official Methods of Analysis. 15th ed. AOAC Int., Arlington, VA.
  20. Lacroix, R., D. R. Keeney, and L. M. Welsh. 1970. Potentiometric titration of chloride in plant tissue extracts using the chloride ion electrode. Commun. Soil Sci. Anal. 1:1–6.
  21. Oser, B. L. 1965. Hawk’s Physiological Chemistry. 14th Ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY.
  22. Richards, L. A. 1954. Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. 1st Ed. Agriculture Handbook No. 60. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, India.
  23. WinFeed Ltd., Milton, Cambridge, UK.
  24. AminoDat 2, Degussa Corp., Allendale, NJ.
  25. Harold, V. 1976. Practical Clinical Biochemistry. 4th Ed. Arnold-Heinemann Publishers (Pvt.) Ltd., New Delhi, India.
  26. Minitab 13.3, Minitab Inc. State College, PA.
  27. Mead, R., R. N. Curnow, and A. M. Hasted. 1993. Statistical Methods in Agriculture and Experimental Biology. 2nd Ed. Chapman and Hall, London, UK. A quadratic (P ≤ 0.023) effect of dietary Na+ was observed on water consumption (y = 7,553.3 – 1,699.2x + 357.1x2; R2 = 1). A quadratic (P ≤ 0.008) effect of dietary Na+ was observed on litter moisture (y = 16.5 + 22.93x – 6.22x2; R2 = 1). Increasing dietary Cl– linearly (P ≤ 0.006) increased litter moisture (y = 30.183 + 1.575x; R2 = 0.94). Dietary Na+ (y = 7.49 – 0.375x + 0.105x2; R2 = 1) at 0.30% had pH near to optimal (7.31) as compared to that of 0.20% (7.22) or 0.25% (7.16). A quadratic (P ≤ 0.001) effect of dietary Cl– (y = 6.45 + 0.95x – 0.24x2; R2 = 1) was observed on blood pH. Breast yield decreased linearly (P ≤ 0.017) by increasing dietary Na+ (y = 31.31 – 1.075x; R2 = 0.85), whereas a quadratic effect (P ≤ 0.001) was observed on abdominal fat (y = 3.82 – 2.61x + 0.55x2; R2 = 1). A quadratic (P ≤ 0.008) effect of Cl– was observed on thighs (y = 34.28 + 6.74x – 1.66x2; R2 = 1), which was highest at 0.40% Cl–.
  28. Britton, W. M. 1992. Dietary sodium and chloride for maximum broiler growth. Zootec. Int. 52:54–57.
  29. Murakami, A. E., S. E. Watkins, E. A. Saleh, J. A. England, and P. W. Waldroup. 1997. Estimation of the sodium and chloride requirements for the young broiler chick. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 6:155–162.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  30. Maiorka, A., N. Magro, H. A. Bartels, A. M. Kessler, and A. M. Penz Jr. 2004. Different sodium levels and electrolyte balances in pre-starter diets for broilers. Rev. Bras. Ciênc. Avícola. 6:143–146.
  31. Barros, J. M. S., P. C. Gomes, L. F. T. Albino, and A. H. Nascimento. 1998. Sodium levels over performance parameters of broiler chicks from 1 to 21 days of age. Page 14 Anais da Conferencécia APINCÓ98 de Ciéncia e Tecnologia Avícolas. FACTA, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
  32. Smith, M. O., and R. G. Teeter. 1989. Effects of sodium and potassium salts on gain, water consumption, and body temperature of 4 to 7 week-old heat stressed broilers. Nutr. Rep. Int. 40:161–169.[ISI]
  33. Cooper, M. A., and K. W. Washburn. 1998. The relationships of body temperature to weight gain, feed consumption, and feed utilization in broilers under heat stress. Poult. Sci. 77:237–242.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  34. Hurwitz, S., I. Cohen, A. Bar, and S. Bornstein. 1973. Sodium and chloride requirements of the chick: Relationship to acid-base balance. Poult. Sci. 52:903–909.[ISI][Medline]
  35. Ahmad, T., and M. Sarwar. 2006. Dietary electrolyte balance: Implications in heat stressed broilers. World’s Poult. Sci. J. 62:638–653.[ISI]
  36. Ahmad, T., T. Mushtaq, Mahr-Un-Nisa, M. Sarwar, D. M. Hooge, and M. A. Mirza. 2006. Effect of different non-chloride sodium sources on the performance of heat-stressed broiler chickens. Br. Poult. Sci. 47:249–256.[ISI][Medline]
  37. Pesti, G. M., H. Cervantes, R. I. Bakalli, K. W. Bafundo, and M. N. Garcia. 1999. Studies on semduramicin and nutritional responses. 3. Electrolyte balance. Poult. Sci. 78:1552–1560.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  38. Vena, V. E., T. H. Lac, and R. F. Wideman. 1990. Dietary sodium, glomerular filtration rate, autoregulation and glomerular size distribution profiles in domestic fowl (Gallus gallus). J. Comp. Physiol. 160:7–16.
  39. Ruiz-Lopez, B., and R. E. Austic. 1993. The effects of selected minerals on acid-base balance of growing chicks. Poult. Sci. 72:1054–1062.[ISI]
  40. Smith, M. O. 1994. Effects of electrolyte and lighting regimen on growth of heat-distressed broilers. Poult. Sci. 73:350–353.[ISI][Medline]
  41. Hooge, D. M., K. R. Cummings, and J. L. McNaughton. 1999. Evaluation of sodium bicarbonate, chloride, or sulfate with a coccidiostat in corn-soy or corn-soy-meat diets for broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 78:1300–1306.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  42. Hooge, D. M., K. R. Cummings, J. L. McNaughton, C. L. Quarles, and B. A. George. 1999. Dietary sodium bicarbonate, coccidial challenge, ionophore coccidiostats in broiler chickens. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 8:89–99.[Abstract/Free Full Text]



This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Poult. Sci.Home page
T. Ahmad, T. Khalid, T. Mushtaq, M. A. Mirza, A. Nadeem, M. E. Babar, and G. Ahmad
Effect of Potassium Chloride Supplementation in Drinking Water on Broiler Performance Under Heat Stress Conditions
Poult. Sci., July 1, 2008; 87(7): 1276 - 1280.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Poult. Sci.Home page
T. Mushtaq, M. Sarwar, G. Ahmad, M. A. Mirza, H. Nawaz, M. M. H. Mushtaq, and U. Noreen
Influence of Canola Meal-Based Diets Supplemented with Exogenous Enzyme and Digestible Lysine on Performance, Digestibility, Carcass, and Immunity Responses of Broiler Chickens
Poult. Sci., October 1, 2007; 86(10): 2144 - 2151.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Summary Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in ISI Web of Science
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (1)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Mushtaq, T.
Right arrow Articles by Noreen, U.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow Articles by Mushtaq, T.
Right arrow Articles by Noreen, U.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS