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J APPL POULT RES 2008. 17:262-271. doi:10.3382/japr.2007-00083
© 2008 Poultry Science Association
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Research Reports

The Effect of Moisture Addition with a Mold Inhibitor on Pellet Quality, Feed Manufacture, and Broiler Performance1

J. M. Hott, N. P. Buchanan, S. E. Cutlip and J. S. Moritz2

Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown 26506

2 Corresponding author: Joe.Moritz{at}mail.wvu.edu


   SUMMARY
TOP
 SUMMARY
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
Three different inclusion levels of a moisture-mold inhibitor mixture (0, 1, and 2%) were added to corn- and soybean-based diets at the mixer as top-dressing additions, and diets were processed at a commercial and a pilot milling facility. Diets were then evaluated according to feed manufacturing variables, pellet quality, broiler performance, and TMEn. Moisture-mold inhibitor additions resulted in an increase in moisture percentages directly after manufacture. After a 2-d storage period, no differences in moisture percentage were detected in diets manufactured at the pilot mill; however, this was not true for diets manufactured commercially. Pellet durability was increased with moisture-mold inhibitor inclusion for the feed processed at the commercial mill, but not for the feed processed at the pilot mill. Relative electrical energy use decreased numerically with increasing levels of moisture-mold inhibitor added to feed processed at the pilot mill. The 1 and 2% diets manufactured commercially resulted in improvements in BW, live weight gain, and FCR, but not the diets manufactured at the pilot mill. There were no differences in TMEn values among treatments, regardless of the manufacturing location. These findings indicate that moisture-mold inhibitor addition has the potential to improve broiler performance and decrease production costs, but improvement depends on the milling technique.

Key Words: feed manufacture • pellet quality • broiler performance


   DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
Commercial broilers are typically fed pelleted diets due to improvements in feed handling and bird performance [1]. Several attributes of pelleted diets may account for performance improvements, including reductions in prehension energy expenditure, feed spillage, and ingredient segregation [1, 2]. To achieve these positive attributes, manufacturers must incorporate pelleting techniques that will yield high-quality pellets. Past research has demonstrated that improvements in pellet quality can directly improve broiler FCR [3, 4]. Feed manufacturers are constantly searching for ways to improve pellet quality while minimizing production costs. A possible solution may be to incorporate moisture into mash diets at the mixer. Fairchild and Greer [5] observed an improvement in pellet durability and a decrease in pellet mill energy consumption when moisture was added to the diet at the mixer. Moisture addition levels used in that study ranged from 1 to 4%. Moritz et al. [6–8] observed similar improvements in pellet quality and electrical energy use with moisture addition levels of 2.5 and 5%.

The addition of water to mash diets may also produce negative effects, mainly nutrient dilution and mold spore proliferation. These effects have the potential to affect broiler performance negatively. To combat the problem of mold contamination, commercial mold inhibitors have been developed. Traditionally, these substances have been applied in a powder form; however, the addition of water at the mixer has led to the development of new products that allow for liquid application [9].

Past research has investigated the effects of moisture addition at high levels (2.5 and 5.0%) on broiler performance and feed manufacture [6–8]; however, these high levels of inclusion may be impractical in the commercial broiler industry, because nutrient dilution and mold spore proliferation become greater concerns as the moisture content of the feed increases. Additionally, high dietary moisture levels create challenges in reaching conditioning temperatures of 82°C without choking the pellet die or decreasing the frictional force necessary for mash extrusion through the pellet die. These effects may be further exacerbated when corn moisture levels are high and ambient air temperatures are low. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of addition of moisture plus a mold inhibitor at the mixer on feed manufacture, pellet quality, and broiler performance variables by using, perhaps more practical, inclusion levels of 1 and 2%.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
Diet Formulation and Feed Manufacture (Experiment 1)
Three broiler grower diets were manufactured at the West Virginia University pilot feed mill. Diets consisted of a corn- and soybean-based control formulation as well as the control formulation with 1 and 2% addition of a water-mold inhibitor amalgam (Table 1Go). A Latin square design was used to manufacture the 3 diets on 3 consecutive days. A 544-kg (1,200-lb) basal diet was mixed and divided into three 181-kg (400-lb) aliquots from which the experimental diets were formed, for each day of processing. Corn was ground to 1,000 µm before pelleting. Diet manufacture was blocked by day and run order. The mold inhibitor [10] was mixed with water at a 95:5 (water:mold inhibitor) ratio and added as a top-dressing to the control formulation. Top-dressing application took place in a single-screw vertical mixer [11], using a garden sprayer set to deliver a fine mist. The diet was then allowed to mix for 15 min to ensure uniform distribution. Mash diets were conditioned at 82°C (180°F) by using saturated steam with an incoming pressure of 262 kPa (38 psig) in a short-term conditioner [0.31 x 1.30 m (1.02 x 4.25 ft), and 10-s retention time]. A California Pellet Mill [12] with a 4.76 x 44.96-mm (3/16 x 1.77-in.) die was used for pellet formation. Pellets were then cooled for 1.25 min with a horizontal, forced ambient air cooler by using an air volume velocity of 2,000 cfm and a bed depth of 1.91 cm (3/4 in.). The average ambient air temperature was 18°C (64°F) and RH was 68% during manufacture. Throughout manufacture, production rate and pellet mill energy consumption were monitored. Energy meters were not in place until the last day of manufacture; hence, relative electrical energy values are reported as descriptive data. Immediately following manufacture, pellets were analyzed to determine the following: moisture loss over a 3-d storage period, pellet durability index (PDI), modified pellet durability index (MPDI), fines (%), and bulk density (Table 2Go) [13]. All samples were analyzed in duplicate, with the averages providing a mean for each replicate.


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  		Table 1. Ingredient percentages, calculated and analyzed nutrient values of all experimental diets
 

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  		Table 2. Feed manufacture variables associated with the pilot milling facility (experiment 1)
 
Broiler Performance (Experiment 2)
A total of 480 one-day-old, straight-run Cobb 500 broilers [14] were randomly assigned to 30 pens containing 16 birds per pen. Bird density was based on summer rearing management. Each pen contained 2 in. (5.08 cm) of fresh pine shavings, 2 Ziggity nipple drinkers, and hanging pan feeders, providing birds ad libitum access to feed and water. Supplemental feeding trays and water founts were provided during the initial 7-d period to ensure adequate consumption. Lighting was continual from 1 to 3 d, 23 h from 4 to 7 d, 20 h from 8 to 24 d, and 23 h for the remainder of the study. Initial starting temperature was set at 32.2°C (90°F) for the first week and was decreased by 2.8°C (5°F) each week thereafter to maximize bird comfort, until a temperature of 21°C (70°F) was reached.

An industry-formulated [15] mash starter diet was fed during the initial 21-d pretest period (Table 1Go). On d 21, birds were individually weighed and redistributed evenly by weight. The 3 grower diets manufactured in experiment 1 were randomly assigned within 10 blocks of 3 pens by using a randomized complete block design. Blocks were designated by location in the grow-out facility. Diets were fed approximately 1 wk after manufacture. The study was ended on d 42. Beginning pen weight as well as 21- to 42-d live weight gain, feed consumption, and FCR were determined.

Broiler Performance (Experiment 3)
A total of 945 one-day-old straight-run Cobb 500 broilers [14] were randomly allocated to 45 pens containing 21 birds per pen. Bird density was based on winter rearing management. Pens were assigned to 1 of 3 similarly formulated treatments as in experiment 1 (Table 1Go); however, these diets were manufactured at a commercial mill [15] and the moisture-mold inhibitor mixture was fed to broilers throughout the starter and grower phases. The commercial mill used a 100-hp Century California Pellet Mill with a 6 ton/h capacity and a 4-s short-term conditioner to process the diets. Pellets were extruded through a 4.37 x 57.2-mm (11/64 x 2.25-in.) die with a steam pressure and temperature of 241 kPa (35 psig) and 68°C (155°F), respectively. Corn was ground to 500 µm before pelleting and mixed for 4 min with a 3-ton horizontal ribbon mixer. Fat was added post pelleting. Diets were stored for approximately 2 wk before feeding. Dietary treatments were replicated 15 times and blocked by location in the grow-out facility. Rearing conditions were identical to those described in experiment 2.

Dietary treatments were presented to birds in a crumbled form from d 1 to 21 and in a pelleted form from d 21 to 42. Beginning pen weight was determined, as well as live weight gain, feed intake, and FCR for the 0- to 21-d, 21- to 42-d, and 0- to 42-d periods. Feed manufacturing variables examined included moisture percentage, PDI, and MPDI. However, feed manufacture was not replicated; hence, feed manufacture variables were reported as descriptive data.

TMEn (Experiment 4)
Experiment 4 used 14 cecectomized Single Comb White Leghorn roosters [16] divided into 2 blocks, with 7 treatments per block. Treatments consisted of the 6 diets manufactured in experiments 1 and 3, as well as a pelleted cornstarch control to determine endogenous excreta energy. Birds were placed in 30.5 x 50.8-cm (12 x 20-in.) raised wire cages and were precision-fed randomly assigned diets in a manner similar to that described by Sibbald [17]. This procedure was repeated after a 2-wk resting period to provide additional replications for statistical analysis. Excreta samples were weighed, dried [18], and ground through a 1-mm screen [19]. Dried samples were analyzed for gross energy [20] and nitrogen content [21]. True metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen was calculated on an as-is basis.

Statistical Analysis
Data were analyzed by using the GLM procedure of SAS [22] to determine the effect of water-mold inhibitor addition on feed manufacturing and broiler performance variables. Multiple comparisons between mean values were made by using Fisher’s LSD test. Linear and quadratic regression analyses were also performed among treatments. Nonsignificant quadratic terms were removed from the model. These analyses were performed to provide a very simple summary of trends and were not intended as a model for prediction. The broiler performance experiment used male-to-female ratio as a covariate. For all analyses performed, {alpha} was 0.05. One-way ANOVA was used to examine possible effects and interactions of moisture addition and mill location or technique on TMEn.

Animal Care and Use
All animals and facilities were maintained in compliance with guidelines established by the West Virginia University Animal Care and Use Committee (ACUC protocol number 06-0502).


   RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
Experiment 1
Moisture percentage on the day of manufacture increased incrementally (P < 0.05) in treatments with addition of the moisture-mold inhibitor (Table 2Go). After storage for 1 d, there was still a linear increase among treatments in feed moisture percentage (P = 0.046); however, after 2 d of storage, no differences (P > 0.05) were detected in feed moisture percentage. These results indicate that pellet moisture had equilibrated with atmospheric moisture in 2 d of storage. Furthermore, moisture addition from steam conditioning diminished over time, as was evident from control diet measurements.

Pellet durability and modified pellet durability were not affected by addition of the moisture-mold inhibitor amalgam (Table 2Go). These results contradict results obtained by Fairchild and Greer [5] as well as by Moritz and coauthors [6–8], who noted significant increases in PDI and MPDI values as mash moisture content was increased. However, it is important to note that the PDI and MPDI values in the control diet were exceptionally high initially (89.54 and 81.96, respectively), leaving little room for improvement in pellet quality. A possible explanation for the inconsistencies between past studies and the current study is the variation among pellet dies used during feed manufacture. The current study used a 44.96-mm-thick (1.77-in.-thick) die with 4.76-mm-diameter (3/16-in.-diameter) die openings. The ratio of die thickness to opening diameter was 9.44. In past studies, a 31.75-mm-thick (1.25-in.-thick) die with 3.97-mm (5/32-in.) die openings was used. The ratio of die thickness to opening diameter was 8. Pellet manufacturers recommend a die thickness:opening diameter ratio of 10 to produce high-quality pellets with high-grain rations, as would be typical for broiler diets [23]. Likewise, dietary treatment had no effect (P > 0.05) on bagged fine, cooler fine, and total fine percentages. In contrast, Moritz and coauthors [7] observed decreases in bagged fine percentage with increasing moisture addition. Production rate was also not affected by treatment (P > 0.05). These results differ from past research [5, 8] that demonstrated an increase in production rate as mash moisture levels increased. Pellet mill electrical energy use decreased numerically from 4.42 kW·h/t in the control to 4.16 and 3.87 kW·h/t in the 1 and 2% diets, respectively. These results are in agreement with Fairchild and Greer [5] as well as Moritz and coauthors [7, 8] who observed similar reductions in pellet mill energy use with graded moisture addition levels. Much of the past research used moisture addition levels ranging from 2.5 to 5%. The lower moisture addition levels of the current study may also account for discrepancies observed in feed manufacturing variables between these studies.

Experiment 2
The addition of 1 and 2% moisture-mold inhibitor did not affect live weight gain or feed consumption (P > 0.05) and consequently had no effect on FCR (P > 0.05; Table 3Go). Dietary treatment also had no effect on mortality percentage (P > 0.05).


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  		Table 3. Broiler performance at 21 to 42 d associated with feed manufactured at the pilot milling facility (experiment 2)
 
Previous research has indicated that moisture addition at the mixer to corn- and soybean-based diets improved broiler performance [6–8]. These results have been linked largely to improvements in pellet quality; however, in the present study, pellet quality remained unchanged with increasing moisture addition. This observation could have been the result of low moisture addition or variation among milling techniques, such as pellet die use, that may supersede the moisture addition effects on pellet quality. Interestingly, after a 2-d storage period, any moisture added during manufacturing was not present, indicating that the nutrient profile of the diets was similar, resulting in similar performance characteristics when the diets were fed.

Experiment 3
Diets manufactured at the commercial facility were of high pellet quality, with PDI and MPDI values being 93, 97, and 96 and 87, 92, and 91 for the control, 1%, and 2% diets, respectively (Table 4Go). Corn particle size was smaller in experiment 3 compared with that used in experiment 1 (500 and 1,000 µm, respectively). Smaller corn particle size has been linked to improvements in pellet quality [24]. Pellet die length:diameter ratio was 13.1 in experiment 3 compared with 9.44 in experiment 1. A larger length:diameter ratio would require more frictional force to extrude pellets through the die, and likely increased starch gelatinization and consequently pellet quality. Moisture percentages of stored pellets were higher for diets manufactured in experiment 3 and may indicate an increase in gelatinized starch. Past studies have correlated increasing moisture content of feed with an increase in starch gelatinization [6, 7]. Post pellet fat application and low-steam conditioning temperature would have increased die frictional force and may have permitted greater starch gelatinization with moisture addition at the mixer and thus improved pellet quality. Increases in starch gelatinization have been linked to improvements in PDI [6, 7]. Water may act as a prerequisite for starch gelatinization [25]. Previous studies have observed that increasing the water:starch ratio in the diet significantly increases the amount of starch gelatinization in the final pellet [7, 26]. However, proper water:starch ratios necessary for complete gelatinization are never reached in a short-term conditioning system. Thus, heat generated within the conditioning-pelleting system may have a greater impact on partial starch gelatinization and pellet quality. The addition of fat at the mixer, the technique used in experiment 1, may decrease opportunities for starch to gelatinize as well as increase die lubrication, decrease frictional force in the die, and additionally decrease starch gelatinization and protein denaturation, both conformational changes that could affect pellet durability. The lower conditioning temperature used in experiment 3 reduced the amount of water added to the feed in the conditioner, thus decreasing lubrication and increasing frictional force in the die, potentially increasing starch gelatinization. The improvement in pellet quality relative to the high-quality control formulation was remarkable. Broilers receiving diets containing the moisture-mold inhibitor mixture performed better than those receiving control diets (Table 4Go). Inclusion levels of 2% resulted in an increase (P < 0.05) in 21- to 42-d BW and live weight gain compared with control diets. However, birds that consumed the 1% diet demonstrated superior FCR (P < 0.05) compared with birds receiving both the control and 2% diets. It is possible that the variations in performance data between the 1 and 2% diets were due to interactions of pellet quality and nutrient dilution. The 2% diet demonstrated an increase in PDI and retained more moisture relative to the control. Consequently, birds consuming this diet increased feed intake and gained more weight. Moisture percentage for the 1% diet was similar to the control; thus, the decreased FCR was likely due to improvements in pellet quality. Research conducted by Cutlip and coauthors [27] demonstrated similar results, noting significant improvements in broiler performance when PDI values were increased by 4 points in a high pellet quality range (89 vs. 93). The authors suggested that improvements in pellet quality greater than 90% may dramatically influence broiler performance. These performance improvements may be attributed to the reduction in energy expenditure during prehension [1, 28]. Experiments 2 and 3 differed in feed manufacturing location or technique and the incorporation of the moisture-mold inhibitor mixture throughout the starter and grower periods. This prolonged consumption of the moisture-mold inhibitor amalgam could have been additive to benefits associated with improved pellet quality and the improvements observed in broiler performance variables experienced in experiment 3. Past research has demonstrated improvements in broiler performance when organic acids were added to the diets [29, 30].


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  		Table 4. Broiler performance associated with feed manufactured at the commercial milling facility (experiment 3)
 
Experiment 4
Results from the TMEn assay indicated that there were no differences (P > 0.05) in ME values among diets from experiments 2 and 3 (Table 5Go). Further statistical evaluation using 1-way ANOVA analysis indicated that neither moisture nor milling location, or a moisture xmilling location interaction elicited a significant effect on TMEn values. Values obtained through TMEn assay were higher than calculated values, likely because of the 24-h fasting and collection periods used in this assay. McNab and coauthors [31] recommended a 48-h fasting and 48-h fecal collection period to allow for the clearance of residual feed in the gastrointestinal tract. The 24-h fasting and collection periods were chosen for this study because the birds used had previously been trained for this procedure. Diets used in the 2 studies were nutritionally comparable based on the rooster model, indicating that the performance differences observed between experiments 2 and 3 may not have been related to digestible energy.


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  		Table 5. Nitrogen-corrected TME of diets produced from the pilot and commercial milling facilities determined with Single Comb White Leghorns cockerels (experiment 4)
 

   CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
REFERENCES AND NOTES
 
  1. Addition of a moisture-mold inhibitor at the pilot mill increased moisture percentage of the feed on the day of manufacture. However, diets equilibrated after a 2-d storage period; thus, nutrient profiles were not diluted.
  2. Relative electrical energy use was numerically lowered with increasing addition of a moisture-mold inhibitor, suggesting a decreased pellet production cost.
  3. Addition of a moisture-mold inhibitor at the commercial mill improved broiler live weight gain, BW, and FCR, likely because of the improvements obtained in pellet quality and increased exposure to the organic acids present in the mold inhibitor throughout the starter and grower periods.
  4. Pellet quality improvements associated with moisture addition at the mixer were dependent on the milling technique.


   FOOTNOTES
 
1 The use of trade names in this publication does not imply endorsement of the products mentioned or criticism of similar products not mentioned. Back


   REFERENCES AND NOTES
TOP
 SUMMARY
 DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
 REFERENCES AND NOTES
 

  1. Behnke, K. C. 1994. Factors affecting pellet quality. Pages 44–54 in Proc. Maryland Nutr. Conf. Feed Manuf., College Park, MD. Maryland Feed Ind. Counc. and Univ. Maryland, College Park.
  2. Briggs, J. L., D. E. Maier, B. A. Watkins, and K. C. Behnke. 1999. Effect of ingredients and processing parameters on pellet quality. Poult. Sci. 78:1464–1471.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Nir, I., Y. Twina, E. Grossman, and Z. Nitsan. 1994. Quantitative effects of pelleting on performance, gastrointestinal tract and behavior of meat-type chickens. Br. Poult. Sci. 35:589–602.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  4. Moran, E. T., Jr. 1989. Effect of pellet quality on the performance of meat birds. Pages 87–108 in Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition. W. Haresign and D. J. A. Cole, ed. Butterworths, London, UK.
  5. Fairchild, F., and D. Greer. 1999. Pelleting with precise mixer moisture control. Feed Int. 20:32–36.
  6. Moritz, J. S., R. S. Beyer, K. J. Wilson, K. R. Cramer, L. J. McKinney, and F. J. Fairchild. 2001. Effect of moisture addition at the mixer to a corn-soybean-based diet on broiler performance. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 10:347–353.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Moritz, J. S., K. J. Wilson, K. R. Cramer, R. S. Beyer, L. J. McKinney, W. B. Cavalcanti, and X. Mo. 2002. Effect of formulation density, moisture, and surfactant on feed manufacturing, pellet quality, and broiler performance. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 11:155–163.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  8. Moritz, J. S., K. R. Cramer, K. J. Wilson, and R. S. Beyer. 2003. Feed manufacture and feeding of rations with graded levels of added moisture formulated at different densities. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 12:371–381.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  9. Anitox Corp. Lawrenceville, GA.
  10. Fungex mold inhibitor. Contains 30% propionic acid, 30% butyric acid, and 40% aqueous ammonia solution (buffering agent). Manufactured by Anitox Corp., Lawrenceville, GA.
  11. Weigh-Tronix single-screw vertical mixer with a 1-ton capacity.
  12. California Pellet Mills Inc., Crawfordsville, IN.
  13. American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1997. ASAE S269.4: Cubes, pellets, and crumbles—Definitions and methods for determining density, durability, and moisture. Standards 1997. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng., St. Joseph MI.
  14. Cobb-Vantress, Siloam Springs, AR.
  15. MFA Inc., Lebanon, MO.
  16. Hy-Line W-36, Hy-Line International, West Des Moines, IA.
  17. Sibbald, I. R. 1976. A bioassay for true metabolizable energy in feedingstuffs. Poult. Sci. 55:303–308.[Web of Science][Medline]
  18. Virtis Freezemobile 12SL, Virtis Co., Gardiner, NY.
  19. Cyclotec 1093 sample mill, Foss Tecator, Eden Prairie, MN.
  20. Isoperibol oxygen bomb calorimeter model 1266, Parr Instrument Co., Moline, IL.
  21. Kjeltec Auto 1030 analyzer, Foss Tecator, Eden Prairie, MN.
  22. SAS Institute. 2000. The SAS System for Windows 2000. Release 8.1. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC.
  23. California Pellet Mills Inc. 2007. Personal communication. Crawfordsville, IN.
  24. Reece, F. N., B. D. Lott, and J. W. Deaton. 1986. Effects of environmental temperature and corn particle size on response of broilers to pelleted feed. Poult. Sci. 65:636–641.[Web of Science]
  25. Thomas, M., T. van Vliet, and V. F. B. van der Poel. 1998. Physical quality of pelleted animal feed 3. Contribution of feedstuff components. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 70:59–78.[CrossRef]
  26. Lund, D. 1984. Influence of time, temperature, moisture, ingredients and processing conditions on starch gelatinization. CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 20:249–273.[Web of Science]
  27. Cutlip, S. E., J. M. Hott, N. P. Buchanan, A. L. Rack, J. D. Latshaw, and J. S. Moritz. 2008. The effect of steam conditioning practices on pellet quality and growing broiler nutritional value. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 17:249–261.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  28. Jensen, L. S., L. H. Merrill, C. V. Reddy, and J. McGinnis. 1962. Observations on eating patterns and rate of food passage of birds fed pelleted and unpelleted diets. Poult. Sci. 41:1414–1419.[Web of Science]
  29. Izat, A. L., N. M. Tidwell, R. A. Thomas, M. A. Reiber, M. H. Adams, M. Colberg, and P. W. Waldroup. 1990. Effects of propionic acid in the diets on the performance of broiler chickens and on the microflora of the intestine and carcass. Poult. Sci. 69:818–826.[Medline]
  30. Vieira, S. L., and E. T. Moran Jr. 1998. Broiler yields using chicks from extremes in breeder age and dietary propionate. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 7:320–327.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  31. McNab, J. M., and J. C. Blair. 1988. Modified Assay for true and apparent metabolisable energy based on tube feeding. Br. Poult. Sci. 29:697–707.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]



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N. P. Buchanan and J. S. Moritz
Main effects and interactions of varying formulation protein, fiber, and moisture on feed manufacture and pellet quality
J. Appl. Poult. Res., January 1, 2009; 18(2): 274 - 283.
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